Censor Restrictions In Indian Cinema

Censor Restrictions In Indian Cinema The boundary within which artistic liberty swings has, historically, remained a debatable issue. Liberal democracies all over the world have recognised the need for reasonable restriction, though its boundaries are yet to be settled. In India cinema censorship appeared as an inevitable response to growing obscenity, restraint on the public morale being necessary for socio-cultural and political reasons. However, obscenity and lewdness having varying interpretations, censor decisions have remained a contentious issue. All efforts including judicial pronouncements, expert committee recommendations and periodic review of the censorship guidelines have fall short of settling the issue. The ongoing digital communication technology revolution has prompted a fresh debate on the relevance of cinema censorship in India. This paper attempts to review the legal and philosophical foundations of the concept to identify the reasonable limits of artistic expression in India, in the context of chang ing pubic moral and social patterns, and the ongoing digital communication technology revolutions. Introduction A gloss over the existing literature on cinema revels that censorship debate continues ever since cinemas emergence as a major mass entertainment industry, of course, the issue of contention keeps on changing. The battle over it is often fought as petty-bickering and yet at other times in terms of angry public furor at the overt or covert sexual obscenities. Though the polemics of Indian film censorship generally revolved round sleaze, sensuality, sexuality, nudity and permissiveness (Bhowmik, 2003:3148), excessive depiction of obscenity and lewdness is primarily seen as the reason for censorship becoming inevitable in India- restraint on the public moral being necessary for socio-cultural, political, national security reasons. But, obscenity being perceptual and having different nuances of meanings for different segments of age and populations, the CBFCs decisions were often questioned, making it a debatable issue. The era of censor restriction began in British India when the film Bhakta Vidura (1921) was banned because its protagonist bore a strong resemblance to Mahatma Gandhi. In 1978, the Central Board of Film Censor (renamed Central Board of Film Certification in 1982) referred to the political film KISSA KURSI KA(The Tale of a Chair), an innuendo about the politicians) to the Information Broadcasting Ministry for further clearance. This was eventually destroyed only to be remade and released latter. In 1981, the film MERI AWAZ SUNO (Please Listen to My Voice), about a policeman who infiltrates an underworld gang to discover its nexus with politicians, was first granted an A certificate, but subsequently suspended under the Cinematograph act, 1952 citing that the film depicted excessive violence. In 1994, the film BANDIT QUEEN, based on the life history of Phoolon Devi-a dalit woman turned bandit was recommended for 17 cuts by the Central Board of Film Certification(CBFC). The film was released with just one visual and one audio cut after court intervention. In the film KAMA SUTRA- A TALE of LOVE (1996), which sought to demonstrate the marriage of spirituality and sexuality through the story of a princess and her servant, was denied a certificate citing it pornographic; it was certified after two scenes of nudity were erased. The film FIRE (1998), which explicitly screened the relationship of two women, who found the poignant expression of their love in their lesbian relationship, was cleared for public exhibition by the Censor Board but, the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting referred it back to the Censor Board for review due to violent protest against the film in parts of India. In 2002,the CBFC demanded several deletions from the anti-war and anti-nuclear documentar y film Jung-aur-aman (War and Peace) as a pre-condition for granting certificate, only to be certified without any deletion after the Bombay High Court directed the CBFC to do so (TOI,2003:April 26). As the censors claimed, the film suggested a bias against the Muslims minority when aid was distributed after the Gujrat earth quake 2001. The list of such films touched by censorship issues in India gets longer even as the country emerges as the most prolific film producing country in the world (TOI,2002: July 28). At times the issue is excessive violence (Aakrosh, 2003), at others it is kissing on screen (Khwaish), even at others it is smoking on screen (God Mother, 1999, Pyar -To-Hona Hi Tha). The era of protest against restriction on cinema is as old as the restriction itself. But the restriction continues and is expected to continue, of course, efforts have been made to ease the tensions out. The recent ICT revolutions, especially the wider availability of digital duplicating technologies and the wider scope for their circulation through the networked technologies have raised afresh questions on the relevance of the censor mechanism in India. But, despite the growing justifications against its continuation, the justifications for censorship is found in the argument that Indian society constitutes of people with a divergent social outlook and the response to cinema censorship must be defined by the divergent socio- political and cultural parameters of the country (Dayal, 1987). But, every new case of censorship dispute renews demands for abolition of the Censor Board and the practice of film censorship in India. The Indian Supreme Court and High Courts have adjudicated on the matter, expert committees have recommended solutions, the government has issued revised guidelines from time to time, but still the issue remains unsettled. Even public opinion on the issue is intricate and dichotomous. Despite the county having well formulated obscenity laws for over a century, the question still remains: is censorship necessary? This paper attempts to explore the philosophical foundations of the right to artistic expression and its reasonable limits with special reference to film censorship in India in the context of the ongoing digital communication technology revolution, emerging patterns of Indian society and the changing profile of Indian audiences. The specific objectives of the study are: To examine the legal and philosophical foundations of media freedom, to identify its limits and explore the grounds for censor restriction. To explore the impacts of films and the scope for their positive use for social transformation and development. To make an assessment of the role and functioning of the Censor Board with regard to public perception and expectation in the context of the emerging digital communication technology environment; and To analyze public perception to find out the potential to make the Indian cinema censorship practices more effective and acceptable. Background of the Study Historically, censorship as a term in English goes back to the office of the censor established in ancient Rome. The censor was one of two magistrates of early Rome who acted as the census authority, and inspectors of moral who regulated the morals of the citizens, (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary defines Censor, to be a person who is authorized to read publications or correspondence or to watch theatrical performances and suppress in whole or in part anything considered obscene or politically unacceptable. As a practice, censorship is the control of what people may say or hear, write or read, or see or do, and suppression of material considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or the citizen groups. The materials which are included within the scope of censorship commonly includes nudity, sexual activity, language, presentation of criminal acts, violence messages considered to be immoral in the context of a society. Traditionally censorship was associated with ideas about state oppression, intolerant governments or other powerful institutions controlling the minds of powerless citizens and societys dominated classes (Biltereyst, 2010). It was related to brutal strategies to limit freedom of speech, or to undermine artistic expression. It was even seen as part of a carefully orchestrated strategy of controlling or even silencing public debate in society. With the universal recognition of human rights and the right to communicate as a vital component, the exercise of film censorship in modern times is seen as violating the sanctity of the constitutionally granted freedom of speech and expression in liberal democracies (Kazmi,2001), and is mostly regarded as a relic of an unenlightened and much more oppressive age and hardly finds any favour among elite sections of a society. Daniel Biltereyst of the Centre for Cinema and Media Studies claim that censorship is more complex and constitutes more than simply banning, cutting and imposing restrictions from above by state institutions. This revelation is based on a broader definition of censorship and new theoretical underpinnings of the concept. New approaches argue that the state does not wield absolute power, and also that censorship institutions are not disconnected from society but are run by flesh-and-blood people with their own sensitivities, norms and values. This includes the existence of negotiations between the censors, the industry and film makers (Biltereyst, 2008). This new approach to censorship shifted the focus from the old institutionalized, interventionist censorship to a more culturalist notion of film censorship (Biltereyst, 2010). From this perspective, censorship was gradually accepted as a keen and sharp indicator of what a particular hegemonic group in society can tolerate at a particular moment. The wider social and cultural ideologies determining hegemonic groups activities present the framework for negotiation between industry, filmmakers, censors and their respective discourses, to achieve some form of consensus on the acceptability of certain images, scenes or films. This negotiation process makes it rather unlikely that film classification boards would take decisions going completely against societal sensitivities. The censor negotiations combine historical, sociological, aesthetic, and philosophical parameters and vacillate between the two extremes of the liberty of artistic expression and the moral responsibilities of audiovi sual representations. Reflecting the views of a section of the film industry Bhowmik claims that trends on censorship practice violates the sanctity of the constitutionally granted freedom of speech and expression Disagreeing with the popular notion of censorship as moral restraint, he argues that its true import lies in the propagation of political agendas, there being intricate interplay of policies of governance and strictures of censorship. It is claimed that bureaucratic manipulation, judicial laxity, vested interest and political or public pressure keep the institution of film censorship going in India (Bhowmik (2003:3149). Cinema can play a positive role in society in terms of providing entertainment, enhancing information and knowledge, sensitizing people about urgent issues of society, in creating sociability and offering catharsis (Bhakhry, 1995:71). Similarly, cinema can also play an equally negative role in teaching wrong values, generating social and sexual violence and crime, providing escape from reality into a dream world instead of facing up to the problems of life, encouraging adoption of destructive role models and in encouraging cynicism about social institutions (Bhakhry, 1995:71. It is these impacts of cinema on society which makes censorship an important issue and justifies the efforts put into this study. Genesis of Censor Restriction in Indian Cinema The institution of censorship in Indian cinema took roots soon after the birth of the indigenous film industry. The Indian Cinematograph Act of 1918 was enacted by the British government in India with the avowed aim of safety of the audiences, and the prevention of degrading of moral performances, though the real intentions, as was often alleged, were to pre-empt political issues perceived as threats to the British Raj in India (Bhowmik, 2003:3149).Regional Censor Boards were constituted at Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Rangoon, and Lahore in 1920, to put a check, as was claimed, on sensitive issues, objectionable subjects, and forbidden scenes in foreign films. The first instances of censorship took place soon after the setting up of these regional censor boards when the 1921 film Bhakta Vidura was banned alleging that its protagonist bore a strong resemblance to Mahatma Gandhi. Following Indian independence, the Indian Cinematograph Act of 1918 was carried forward by the Indian leadership essentially as an attempt to cleanse or control the harmful western influence through the medium of film entertainment. The Indian leadership publicly stated that the sanctity of the well received principles of morality and behaviour would be invoked in matters relating to exhibition of films in the country(Bhowmik,2003: July 26). They emphasized the need for improvement in the moral and ethical standards in films. In 1951, all regional censor boards were brought under the unified command of a Central Board of Film Censors. The Indian Cinematograph Act 1918 was replaced by the Indian Cinematograph Act 1952, which was amended in 1982 and new censorship guidelines were issued in 1983. The law provides for appointment of a Central Board of Film Certification to certify films for public exhibition in India which functions with headquarters at Mumbai assisted by nine regional offices at Bangalore, Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai, Thiruvananthpuram, New Delhi, Cuttack and Guwahati. The law and the guidelines provide for appointment of the Board, their functioning and the issues to be considered while certifying a cinema for public exhibition in India. A Film certification Appellate Tribunal was established in 1984 at Delhi to hear appeals against the decisions of the CBFC. In the years that followed Indian independence, film censorship continues to vacillate between the two extremes of the growing right to freedom of expression view and public decency defined by group perceptions and interests. The then minister of information and broadcasting R.R. Diwakar characterized the newly framed CBFC as a dignified effort to model an effective medium of healthy entertainment, national culture, and mass education (Hunnings, 1967:228). The main objectives of film censorship, as per the certification guidelines, have been to ensure that The medium of film remains responsible and responsive to the values and standards of society; Artistic expression and creative freedom are not unduly curbed; and Censorship is responsive to social changes. As provided in the Indian Cinematograph Act 1952 including its subsequent amendments , films are certified relying on the judgment of examining and revising committees and are issued any of the following four types of certificates -U, UL. A, and S, as has been provided under the Indian Cinemagraph Act.1952. U (unrestricted exhibition) certificate is issued to a cinema which, in the opinion of the CBFC, is suitable for unrestricted public exhibition. UA (unrestricted public exhibition subject to parental guidance for children below the age of 12) certification is issued to a film in respect of which the board is of the opinion that it is necessary to caution that the question as to whether any child below the age of 12 may be allowed to see such film should be considered by the parents or guardians of such child. A (public exhibition restricted to adults only) certificate is issued to a cinema if in the opinion of the board its public exhibition is to be restricted to adults only. S'(public exhibition restricted to specialized audiences) certification of a cinema means the cinema is suitable for public exhibition restricted to members of a profession, for example Doctors. The CBFC is assisted in examination of films by members of Advisory Panels and Examining Committees, and issues certificates as suggested. The board examines films for certification in accordance with provisions contained in the Cinematograph Act, 1952, the Cinematography (Certification) Rules, 1983 and the guidelines issued in this regard by the government of India from time to time. While considering a cinema for certification as mentioned above, the CBFC may direct to delete or amend material that might be considered to be offensive by its audiences or may even refuse to allow a film to be screened commercially. The Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT) hears appeals against the decisions of the Censor Board in respect of certification of a film. The decisions of the tribunal are binding on the board and it disposes the matter in conformity with the order of the tribunal. Under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act, 1952 the Central Government is also empowered to send back a film for review by the Censor Board or to cancel or modify a certificate issued to a film under certain circumstances. Petitions can be filed in High Courts seeking a ban on screening of a film. IV. Artistic Freedom and its Limits Article 19(1) (a) of the Indian Constitution Guarantees to every citizen of India the right to freedom of speech and expression; also assures the freedom of media, though it is not separately stated there, unlike some other constitutions like that of the USA. The freedom of media is part of a larger right of freedom of speech and expression guaranteed to every citizen. The right to freedom of speech and expression includes within it, the right to collect and receive information from anywhere and through any legitimate means, the right to disseminate information and express opinion (Sawant, 1997). The freedom granted under 19(1) (a) is not absolute, and is subject to restrictions recognized by all liberal democracies as well as by international declarations and covenants. These restrictions are contained in Article 19(2) of the Indian Constitution, which states that freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by article 19(1)(a) shall not affect the operation of any existing law, or prevent the state from making any law, which imposes reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the freedom in the interests of sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence. The restrictions have, of course to be reasonable meaning there by that; they must have a direct nexus with the ground on which they are imposed (Sawant, 1997). They should also not be in excess of the purpose sought to be achieved or supplant the freedom itself . Again, the media, when run as a business, is also subject to the restrictions, which may be imposed by the state on any business, under Article 19(6) of the constitution. The principles of the censorship set out in section 5-B of the Cinematograph (Amendment) Act, 1959 states: A film shall not be certified for public exhibition if, in the opinion of the authority competent to grant the certificate the film or any part of it against the interests of security of the state, public order, decency or morality, or involves defamation or contempt of court, or is likely to incite the commission of an offence. This sub section is in agreement with article 19(2) of the constitution. Sub-section (2) of section 5-B states, Subject to the conditions contained in sub-section -1, the central government may issue such directions as it may think fit, setting out the principles which shall guide the authority competent to grant certificate under this act in sanctioning films for public exhibition. In a celebrated Supreme Court judgment in 1970, in the case brought before it by K.A. Abbas, regarding his film A Tale of Four Cities declared that, censorship falls under constitutional guarantee of freedom of speech and expression and that while pre censorship of films does not contravene those guarantees per se, is still a justifiable issue and cannot be decided by a government official (Dayal, 1987). The Supreme Court has indicated that , Censorship in India (and pre-censorship is not different in quality) has full justification in the field of exhibition of cinema films and the censorship imposed on the making and exhibition of films is in the interest of the society. If the regulations venture into something, which goes beyond the legitimate opening to restrictions, they can be questioned on the ground that a legitimate power is being abused. We hold, therefore, that censorship of films, including prior restraint, is justified under our constitution (Vasudev, 1978). The enquiry committee on film censorship in 1968, known as the Khosla Committee, in its report submitted in 1969, said, in the case of films Censorship can be deemed to be reasonable restrictions on the right of freedom of expression. Provided that the nature and extent of this control or restriction is related to the maters mentioned in Article 19(2) of the Indian constitution. Censorship must be authorized by law, and must be confined within the limits permitted by law and the provisions of the constitution. To extend the scope of censorship to considerations of public taste and ban a mater which does not fall within the limits of the reasonable restrictions clause would not be legal(Vasudev,1979). As such, the legal boundaries of Artistic freedom and its limits are well settled. But, the issue beyond the legal framework, which comes into the fore in any discussion of the moral basis of cinema censorship, is its social impact. Social Impacts of Films Any discussion on films and society confronts a vital question dose cinemas have any impact on the society. There are two schools of thought on this issue among film makers. One line of thinking believe that films can never affect or reform the social body or the events taking place within it, but the other believes that the medium does have a direct or indirect impact on social streams, even though it may not be immediately perceptible. The former cites the example that just after a couple of excellent anti-war films were exhibited, the second world war engulfed humanity hence cinema cannot and should not offer any solutions for social problems raised by its writer and directors, by its content and style. The mere exposition of the problem is enough and there ends cinemas artistic obligation as well as compulsion. The later, however, stretches cinemas role further to promote a thought process and line of action where by the viewers are provoked into trying a change for the better. F ilms, which talked directly and movingly about the wrongs of society, go on to influence it and shape it along better lines. The most important contribution of cinema to society is that by sheer usage it has grown to be a standard reference for most kinds of questions and situations, where elementary knowledge and practice are needed (Rangoonwalla, 1995:7). The mass mind picks up such points largely and stores them in some mental corner, to be reactivated while seeking or giving answers and guidance. Some of the life patterns and conclusions propagated by them could be having social repercussions below the outer of everyday life. Violence, crime and sex are made to look easy and frivolous, without much of retribution to follow. The magic of cinema is virtually unfathomable. The very mention of cinema conjures up a rainbow of captivating images. A vital aspect of Indian cinema is its unifying character. The Indian films have been subtly albeit consistently promoting the ideas of national integration and communal harmony. A part of the socio-economic cultural transformation can be attributed to the cinema as films usually generate social mobility, fluidity and an overall sense of oneness among people of different backgrounds (Rangoonwalla, 1995:7).The society is ripe with cases of crimes and criminals being emulated from the screen and so also the attitude to suicide as a way of dejection, mostly in love. Fashion including smoking and drinking, in many cases, are inspired from cinema characters. The vast fan followings of stars like Rajesh Khanna, Amitabh Bachhan, Mithun Chatkrabothy are eloquent testimony to the social impacts of films. A study by Dr. Sativa Bhakry shows that Cinema can play both positive as well as negative roles in society. It can have positive impacts in terms of providing entertainment, enhancing information and knowledge, sensitizing people about urgent issues of society, in creating sociability and offering catharsis. It offers release from tensions of daily life. Cinema can also play an equally negative role in teaching wrong values, generating social and sexual violence and crime, providing escape from reality into a dream world of fantasy instead of facing up to the problems of life, encouraging adoption of destructive role models and in encouraging cynicism about social institutions (Bhakhry, 1995:71-76). VI. Philosophical Foundations of Cinema Censorship Platos polemics of art and artists urged strict censorship of the arts because of their influence on moulding peoples characters (Rufus, 2010). Using his theory of forms, Plato claimed that artists and poets couldnt usually explain their works; as they are seized by irrational inspiration, a sort of divine madness (Bruce, 1998). Much of his writings reflect the belief that the vital opinions of the community could be shaped by law and that men could be penalized for saying things that offended public sensibilities, undermined common morality, or subverted the institutions of the community (Jowett, 2010). Acclaimed film critic and a spiritual champion of the right to freedom of expression, Noel Burch (1973) approved the censorship mechanism when he claimed I doubt if anybody will advocate freedom from interference of the state machinery to be extended to the commercial exploitation of a powerful medium of expression and entertainment like cinema. One can imagine the results if an unbridled commercial cinema is allowed to cater to the lowest common denominator of popular taste, especially in a country which after two centuries of political domination , is still suffering from confusion and debasement of cultural values. Freedom of expression cannot, and should not be interpreted as a license for the cinemagnates to make money by pandering to and thereby propagating, shoddy and vulgar taste. While emphasizing the role of cinema as a vehicle of modernism, Indias first Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru has also advocated some amount of social control to ward off its bad effects (Vasudev, 1978:107). Nehrus response to a public petition urging him to curb the evil influences of films not only brought the citizenry within the domain of film censorship but also legitimised their exercise of power. Tanuja Chandra claims that the artists have every right to give expression to the work of art and viewers have an equal right to reject it, if they do not like it either in part or whole. Therefore, cinema like other potent media, such as press, drama and fiction should be left under the common law. The entertainment part of cinema, she argues is of much important than the emotional part. But, it seems, the Indian society has still miles to go before accepting this argument. Veteran actor turned Member of Parliament Satrughna Sinha claims that in a country like India films reach the widest possible and most diversified audience. As a medium of mass communication it can exercise the most tremendous and potent influence on the public. The rampant use of blatant sex and gruesome violence (as commodities for sale by the producers) can terribly shake a nation; the ruinous elements can easily shatter the society before the common law can give protection. As such censorship cannot be unreas onable, if it is within limits (TOI, 2006). Sinha disagrees with Tanuja Chandras suggestion that it should be left to the public to decide what to see and what not and says it cannot be left entirely to the public, this way even blue films could be fair game.(Thapar, 1998). Even he rejects former Censor Board chief Vijay Anands suggestion to replace the system of cuts with ratings and claims that replacing the present system of cuts with ratings will reduce our Technicolor cinema into blue films (Sengupta, 2002). John Dayal Claims that more and more people, especially the younger, look forward to watch the blatant display of sex and violence on the screen. If this virus is allowed to the artery of our national blood, the society will be infested with unruly elements with hardly any care for our social values and traditional tenets, which will eventually lead to chaos and anarchy in the society. Curbs are, therefore, necessary to protect the moral health of the nation and to ensure that cinema does not hurt the sensibilities or interests of the extraordinarily heterogeneous people that constitute the Indian nation (Dayal, 1987:61). Acclaimed film critic Nikhat Kazmi finds no harm in showing a couple kissing as a mark of love and affection, because rapes and murders are not caused only because of films; rather they are the prime instincts of belligerence and sex that are inherent in every human being. She claims that censorship is irrelevant in the present age when cyber space offers its unlimited frontiers at the click of a mouse (Kazmi, 2002). When satellite television brings it all unhindered into the bedroom itself, censorship has virtually nothing to do with the Indian Cinema. Responding to the demands of the digital era, many nations have, in fact, repealed their obscenity laws and have dropped legal barriers against pornography for adults. Supporting these arguments, Tanuja Chandra, an acclaimed film producer in India, terms the Indian censorship guidelines totally redundant. She says the censor rule book, a relic of British colonialism, is completely outdated, it sticks out like a priest who tries to cur b freedom of expression with a ruler in his hands(Kazmi,2002). Citing the censor board decisions as irrational and inconsistent, some film makers claim that at times the censors object to sex, at times to violence and at times even to something as ridiculous as a woman smoking a cigarette (Jha, 1999). Hinting at the vulnerability of the censors, veteran film actor, producer and director Dev Anand says that the Censor Boards limited authority and accountability to the central government, in fact, leads to its play-safe attitude. He opined that the censor board is a puppet in the hands of the central governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ guidelines seems to change every time a government changes (Jha, 1999). Opposing censorship in any form, he argue that every clipping in a film is condemnable and only rating is permissible as in the Hollywood film industry. These conflicting arguments and the apparent vertical split in the film industry shows our state of confusion and failure in taking a categorical position on the issue. Perhaps, the country has not yet reached a stage where censorship in cinema is to be scrapped altogether. The safest choice, therefore, is to take appropriate steps to make our censor mechanism more effective rather than attempting to abolish it. VII. Research Design and Methods Analysing a complex issue like film censorship demands a multidisciplinary approach. Constitutional and legal provisions, judgements of Supreme Court and High Courts, observations of various committees and commissions on limits of the rights

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Subject, Education, Truth Two processes develop in human culture and society that implicate each other. The first is, according to Hegel, the development of universal experience and knowledge in any individual since individuals are never born complete as what they are supposed to be. The second is the subjectivization of the universal experience and knowledge into unique and singular forms of the self and self-consciousness. An analysis of these two processes in the history of philosophy has revealed the interconnections between the cognizing subject, truth and education and paideia. A hermeneutical principle of "self-care" that develops the skill of ruling and caring for others represents one of the traditions that includes these features in unity and determines a type of paideia. This principle is developed by Socratic, Platonic, Epicurean and Stoic morality, and was actualized by Descartes in his movement to the cogito. "Self-care" was considered in the 17th century as a condition of acquiring scientific k nowledge; later, however, it was labeled as egotism and individualism and replaced by self-cognition. Foucault gives proof of the necessity to revive the "self-care" principle in its initial sense as a foundation of the modern hermeneutical conception of upbringing. Hence, the role of philosophy as "an adviser" or "tutor" is to be revived in the process. How should I change my "self" to gain access to the truth? M. Foucault Hegel treats education as the alienation of natural Being and individual rising to universality, thus he correspondingly understands the person as "self" and as the subject of education. Subjectivity is here the definiteness of the universal. Aimed to freedom, it is able to unfold itself in culture and history, to develop itself on the basis of "the spirit and heart principle" to the extent of subjectivity, to the extent of judicial, moral, religious and scientific activity. It exhibits itself in active entity, internal activity and processuality as "inter-subjective" activity that develops in culture and history. The self-educating subjectivity becomes the highest universality, concrete Being of the universal, an individualisation of its content. In culture and society there develop two processes that meet each other. The first one, according to Hegel, is coming of a person to the universal experience and knowledge, because a person is never born the one s/he has to be. The second i s subjectivization of the universal experience and knowledge into unique and singular forms of the self and self-consciousness. Looking at education from these two points of view allows one to reveal hermeneutic meanings of education.

Maquiladoras & NAFTA Essay -- essays research papers

MAQUILADORAS AND THE NAFTA'S IMPACT: Introduction In this paper I will discuss the history and practices of the Maquiladora industry. I will discuss its background, its problems, the benefits it offers to United States companies, and the impact the NAFTA has and will have on the industry. In addition, I will make a suggestion on a possible strategy the Maquiladoras can adopt in order to address the challenges brought on by the NAFTA, to ensure it remains a strong force in the future. Background Mexican agricultural workers had been granted temporary work visas allowing them to work in the United States' agricultural industries through a program called the Bracero Program until 1965 when this program was terminated. As a result of this termination, the unemployment rate had exceeded 70% in certain border cities. In May of 1965 the Border Industrialization Program was established as a replacement for the Bracero program. It was later renamed the Maquiladora Program. The program was established by the Mexican government to provide employment for Mexico's rapidly growing population along its border with the United States. This Program was utilized to keep Mexicans from entering the United States. The idea was that Mexican workers would be kept on the Mexican side of the border if they were given factory jobs on the Mexican side. The Maquiladora program also wanted to attract foreign manufacturing facilities, technology, and know-how by giving a permanent tax holiday to manufact uring companies that would set up "twin plants" on the Mexican side of the border. In the beginning of the program, all foreign-owned operations had to be located within a 20-kilometer strip along the US-Mexican border. Since 1972 they can be located anywhere in Mexico. In 1996 there were around 2,500 Maquiladoras - 35% of them were located in the interior states of Mexico. Last year there were over 3,000 and more and more of these operations are being located outside of the border regions. Each of Mexico's 31 states has at least one Maquiladora. What is a Maquiladora? Maquiladoras, also referred to as "in bond" or "twin" plants, are allowed to temporarily import into Mexico (free of tax) machinery, equipment, replacement parts, raw materials, and just about anything that was used in the assembly or manufacture of semi-finished or finished products... ...on between the non-Maquiladora and Maquiladora industries I feel the inefficient producers will be wiped out. Therefor, Maquiladora employees will need better training, education, incentives as well improved working conditions and higher wages. Operations will also have to be streamlined in order to reap the benefits of economies of scale and scope. In addition, Mexicans as well as US citizens will start to demand more accountability from the Mexican government and the Maquiladora industry. They need to be more responsible for their actions. What will the U.S. corporations do when human rights activists and environmentalists start lobbying and protesting on their US sites? Do they want to risk losing their shareholders to this type of negative attention? References Benitez, Gerardo, Latin American Perspectives: The Maquiladora Program Its Challenges Ahead, THE WHARTON JOURNAL, December 11, 1995. Clifford, Frank and Mary Beth Sheridan, Borderline Efforts on Pollution, THE LOS ANGELES TIMES, June 30, 1997, 1. Naumann, Ann K. and Mireille Hutchinson, The Integration of Women into the Mexican Labor Force Since NAFTA THE AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST, June/July 1997, 950-956.

Long Distance Learning Essay -- Education Research Learn Essays

Long Distance Learning Distance education allows you to study at home or in your office, according to your own schedule, there are no classes to attend. Generally, each course comes with a manual that may be accompanied by videotapes, audiotapes, audio CDs, computer diskettes, CD-ROMs, etc., depending on the nature of the course. As well, many courses incorporate computer conferencing, e-mail, listservs, computer-based quizzes, and the Internet. Some courses are entirely on-line, using the World Wide Web as an innovative learning environment. Distance education provides a contemporary means through which the University may expand in aiding others in furthering their education. The Open Learning program is an open admission distance-only mode of study that provides access to degree-credit university courses for individuals who wish to study independently but are not interested in pursuing a degree at the University level at the present time. You may register in the Open Learning program, even if you are registered at another educational institution or program. The Open Learning program extends the academic resources of the University to those interested in personal enrichment, professional updating, or eventual application to a degree program. Open learning program students must complete the same assignments and examinations as those in degree programs and is evaluated using the same standards. Upon successful completion of a course, learners receive the same credit we...

Exploring Strategy

Abstract This essay examines the state of the Hi-Fi sector utilizing the PESTEL and Porter’s Five Forces. This assessment illustrated that with factors depending heavily on technology there is a real opportunity in the Hi-Fi sector. Any researcher exploring this question will find value in this report. 1 Introduction This essay examines the Hi-Fi sector utilizing the PESTEL and Porters’ Five Forces models in order to assess the current market environment. Identifying the primary opportunities and threats that are present in the field will create a capacity for anticipation and adaptation that can add significant value to any business strategy. Beginning with a PESTEL analysis followed by distinct opportunities, threats and key drivers for change, this essay illustrates the state of the Hi-Fi industry. Following this segment with a relevant Porter’s Five Forces evaluation including overall industry attractiveness will further enhance the illustration of economic viability in the industry. 2 PESTEL Analysis This section utilizes the PESTEL model to evaluate market conditions.2.1 PESTELYuksel (2012) defines the PESTEL as an integrated analysis including the elements of political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, environment and legal in order to determine a sectors capacity.2.1.1 PoliticalPolitically, the Hi-Fi sector is supported in their effort to produce a superior product for a diverse international market (Jansson and Waxel, 2011). Politics influence the modern Hi Fi market to continually innovate and build, reflecting the Hi-Fi industry need for continuous technological input. Regulations and taxation play a direct role in how well the Hi Fi industry international trade statutes have the potential to promote positive development (Jansson et al, 2011). Companies including the advanced manufacturing firm Linn contribute a substantial amount in taxes and international revenue to their nations coffers, enhancing the political need to protect them (The Economist, 2014). Companys including Richer Sounds maintain 100 per cent UK operations, using this support as a means of positive branding (Sounds, 2014). The Telegraph (2010) article lays out the attractive tax cuts that the Chinese government utilizes to entice the emerging Hi Fi companies to set up operation there. With each tax rate adjustment companies including Acramm Quad and NAD among others will seek out tax havens that allow them to retain revenue (Telegraph, 2010). Decisions by the UK regulatory body, including the decision to take the nation digital has a great deal of influence on the continued development of the UK Hi Fi industry (Kessler, 2014). With figures illustrating that only one in 20 have receivers capable of this new transmission as well as only 40 per cent of new vehicles are equipped with the technology, there is a considerable gap to be addressed before implementation (Kessler, 2014).2.1.2. EconomicEconomic factors in for Hi-Fi firms have the potential to substantially assist nation s in their economic recovery efforts (The Economist, 2014). This factor impacts the Hi Fi industry with through direct acknowledgement and support of technological advances (Macintosh, 2010). Lacking this opportunity for growth stagnates the market directly influencing production and development.. International statistics demonstrate a slow 1% growth rate in the industry over the past year (Euromonitor.com. 2014). Yet, long term country reports indicate a steady pattern of growth (Euromonitor.com, 2014). The Hi Fi industry has begun to focus on the high end products including Acram’s newest cinema receiver citing the argument that features are more important than fidelity (End, 2014). The economy can create issues for the industry by failing to provide consumers with the funding to buy products. Linn, another UK Hi Fi brand has used this same philosophy to become a leader in the audiophile streaming music hardware area, a very rapidly developing area (End, 2014). Yet, there i s a real potential for a lack of innovation that fails to produce useful products. Further establishing this trend is Naim’s offering of hi resolution music products that appeal to the very high end market including the Nait 5si and the SuperNait 2 (End, 2014). However, the economic conditions can hinder the opportunity for these offerings to take hold.2.1.3. Socio-cultureThe very nature of the spread of technology is a benefit for the Hi-Fi industry (Andy, 1997; Macintosh, 2010; The Economist, 2014). Yet, if there is a perception of negativity surrounding any company or product, there is the opportunity for a diminished reach. With each new auditory advance, the Hi-Fi sector has an opportunity to utilize their technology to enhance that offering (May, Mason and Pinch, 2001). Yet, conversely, any misstep in the innovation process can set the entire effort back. The continuous advance in technology aids in producing new employment opportunities which enhances the entire system (Pratt, 1997). There is a strong desire on the part of the consumer and manufacturers to create the very best auditory offering (The Economist, 2014). This element of complementary competition enhances the potential in the Hi-Fi industry, yet increases the price consumers feel at the retailer. As company’s including Acram, Linn and Naim compete to produce high end offerings, the entire range of development opportunities benefits (End, 2014). This adoption of hi tech equipment has an associated ripple impact on stores that sell these products, increasing their technology capacity (End, 2014). As new products emerge, the stores upgrade in order to implement the product, thereby changing the entire culture surrounding the offering.2.1.4 TechnologicalThere has been a historical shift from a Hi Fi industry based on individual components to a modern real market based on emerging technology (Sounds, 2014). This factor directly impacts the Hi Fi industries capacity to produce useable products. With the advances technology has created including the inclusion of LCD television, audiophile and multi room Hi Fi progress there is a perception of increasing value in the industry. The increase in complexity alongside reduction in size and integrateable capacity make Hi-Fi products critical components for many new technologies (The Economist, 2014; Macintosh, 2010). This is a clear indication of the support that each of these areas offers the Hi-Fi sector. Online advances including internet offerings have the potential to increase the utilization of the Hi-Fi product, thereby increasing the markets intrinsic value (Macintosh, 2010). Today’s leaders in the industry including Rob Follis cite the fact that modern Hi Fi offerings are better than ever before (End, 2014). This fact includes the recognition that as technology continues to turn from individual components to integrated technology, the Hi Fi sector will continue innovate in order to remain relevant.2.1.5 EnvironmentalMod ern production concerns can have an impact on the manufacturing of any Hi-Fi product (The Economist, 2014). These concerns can significantly slow development and production of any product line. With aspects including pollution during production there is the potential for this aspect to create detrimental operating conditions. This contention supports the argument that a strategy that incorporates these elements benefits the entire effort (Jansson et al, 2011).2.1.6 LegalMultinational and international legalities have an opportunity to impact the Hi-Fi development and production capacity (Jannsson et al, 2011). As laws change as nations jockey for position and revenue causing a collateral impact for the companies involved. Competition between industry rivals can be fierce, requiring a strong a consistent legal awareness (The Economist, 2014).2.2 Opportunities and ThreatsThere is a real opportunity to capitalize on emerging technologies in order to expand the Hi-Fi industry capacity ( The Economist, 2014). Yet, there is a threat of poorly designed products that diminish trade. Real time examples including continued development of the IPod and Ipad based technology, tablets and personal computers integration lead the way for considerable opportunities in the industry (Macintosh, 2010). The economic factors support the argument of growing opportunities in the field of home audio and visual serve to drive the consideration of potential revenue gain in the market (The Economist, 2014). Companies such as Linn and Acram have a unique opportunity to harness emerging technology in order to reach the high end clientele (End, 2014). Conversely, the PESTLE confirms the threat that any overextension in an effort to remain competitive can diminish production and development potential (Jannsson et al, 2011). Advances in the field of medicine provide ample opportunity for the Hi Fi industry to benefit from auditory related sales as well as building real brand awareness (The Economist, 2014). Elements of the Hi-Fi industry touch on the developing technology surrounding Wi-Fi and the internet, providing further opportunity for the industry to gain market share (Jannsson et al, 2011). Yet, the need for technology can slow a development process, diminishing a company’s revenue potential. An opportunity in the Hi-Fi industry rests in the field of cell phone and portable communication (The Economist, 2014). The PESTLE demonstrates that national and international variances in regulations can become a substantial detriment for the Hi Fi industry (Moodysson and Jonsson, 2007). There is a real threat for established companies including Acram, Quad and Warfeldale among others to move to China in order to take advantage of the lower tax brackets (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). Yet, each emerging market and technological advance is an opportunity for the Hi-Fi industry to further integrate (Macintosh, 2010). A balanced consideration must take place in order to successfully implement strategy.2.3 Key drivers for changeLeading the key drivers for the Hi-Fi industry is the need for advances in production, marketing and development (Macintosh, 2010; The Economist, 2014; Jannsson et al, 2011). Every new change at each level will have a direct impact on the consumer and the industry. The second driver remains the political environment on where these companies choose to develop their products (Telegraph.co. uk, 2010). Lacking a positive environment, the capacity for the Hi Fi industry to operate will be further driven by the rate of revenue available in the market (End, 2014). These drivers will determine marketing efforts and production levels for every company in the market. 3 Porter’s Five Forces Analysis3.1 Porters Five ForcesHuggins and Izushi (2011) define the Porter’s Five Forces model as efficient manner of market assessment including the element s of new entrants, substitution, bargaining power and competitive rivalry.3.1.1 Threat of new entrantsThe growth potential of the Hi-Fi industry makes the threat of new entrants substantial (The Economist, 2014). There is a clear opportunity for increased brand awareness accompanied by the potential to add a substantial revenue stream to any company’s income. With companies including Linn and Acram focussing on the high end market, there is recognition of value that will be emulated by others (End, 2014). These elements are consistent with the needs of many competitors in other areas of the technology market such as computers, tablets and personal electronics (The Economist, 2014). The Hi-Fi industry is highly attractive to evolving and developing entities as well as established compan ies (Jannsson et al, 2011). Established companies can easily expand and advertise, while new entrants can progressively build and promote themselves. This area is of high concern due to the rate of new entrants.3.1.2 Threat of Substitute productsThe Hi-Fi sector is dependent on technology, the availability of copies, or similarities in products is high (Jannsson et al, 2011). With emerging nations, such as China, offering substantial potential for competition this is a significant concern for any Hi-Fi strategy. Expanding on this same threat of substitution is the fact that some nations allow for copies of a successful product based on their own design (Jannsson et al, 2011). Regulation s and their enforcement have the potential to play a key role in reducing or increasing the substitutions for any Hi-Fi product on the market. With companies recognizing that products including the Xbox and Playstation among others, can take on the role of other instruments, the threat rises (End, 2014). Developing and competing products make this a category of high impact.3.1.2 Bargaining power of customersThe consumer centred nature of the Hi-Fi industry makes it highly dependent on the perception and application of their products (Jannsson et al, 2011). Any faulty offering or substandard item will directly impact the company’s bottom line (The Economist, 2014). Modern consumers demand an integrateable produce that has the latest technology at the lowest prices, making their overall bargaining power substantial. There is a need to remain on the edge in the mind of the consumer in order to continually expand brand loyalty (Macintosh, 2010). Acram and Linn’s current move into the upper end market has been favourably received by the consumers, driving their position in the market higher helping to advance their market share considerably (End, 2014). Yet, any failure would provide amply incentive for these same consumers to seek another brand (The Economist, 2014). Restin g on the correct anticipation of needs this is an area of moderate to high priority.3.1.3 Bargaining power of suppliersThe high number of competitors alongside the proliferation of technology diminishes the bargaining power of suppliers (The Economist, 2014). If one company is not willing or able to make a product, there are several others that will (Moodysson et al, 2007). However, the more advanced technology that the company possesses, the more likely that that effort will be successful in the market (Jannsson et al, 2011). Yet, in the case of specific technology there is the real opportunity to have a strong bargaining strategy based on the knowledge the company has (Jannsson et al, 2011). If one company does not possess a certain technology, their associated bargaining position will suffer. Linn, noting the potential available in the market, spent liberally to develop the audiophile music download label that propels their current sales strategy (End, 2014). This example has bee n emulated by companies such as Naim, which hope to become a prominent member of the market (End, 2014). With many suppliers available, there is a low to moderate priority in this segment.3.1.4 Intensity of competitive rivalryThe potential for revenue and sustainability make the Hi-Fi sector highly competitive (Jannsson et al, 2011; The Economist, 2014). This rivalry consists of companies including Linn, Acram and Niam, often accounting for the majority of the market share, provides a dynamic illustration of the desire of each company to provide the very best Hi Fi product (End, 2014). There is competition at every level of production, development and marketing in order to make the most of the emerging product (Macintosh, 2010). However, this intensity of competition allows for a consistent series of technological advances which is a clear benefit to consumers and manufacturers (The Economist, 2014). With each advance the opportunity to become a market leader will lead to an intense effort to be the first producer. The competitive environment makes this element very high concern for the Hi Fi industry.3.2 Industry AttractivenessThere is a real opportunity to gain both brand awareness and consumer loyalty with a quality Hi-Fi offering, making the market attractive (The Economist, 2014). The long term consumer trend of sustainable spending is a further indication of positive long term market potential (Euromonitor, 2014). Yet, the fact that this is a well-known fact encourages other manufacturers to maintain a position in the market, making competition fierce (Moodysson et al, 2007)). Each of these factors supports an illustration of a growing market that offers both a ripe opportunity for success and an equally dismal chance for failure. Naim and Linn both demonstrate a high degree of value in the area of Hi Fi industry innovation which in turn increases the overall attractiveness of the market (End, 2014). This is a moderate factor in overall industry making the circumstances acceptable for continued expansion. 4 Conclusion Both the PESTEL and the Porter’s Five Forces evaluations have illustrated the potential for both sustained revenue gain as well as increased brand awareness. This is a supporting argument for a strategy including the Hi-Fi sector. However, the very competitive nature alongside the nuances of technological innovation provides ample potential for loss. With factors depending heavily on technology there is a genuine opportunity for gain to be considered in the Hi-Fi sector. 5 References David, F. R. 1999. Strategic management: Concepts and cases. Prentice Hall. Euromonitor.com. 2014. Home audio and cinema market research, industry trends. [online] Available at: http://www.euromonitor.com/home-audio-and-cinema [Accessed: 2 Mar 2014]. End, B. 2014. British hi-fi companies seek sanctuary at audio’s new high end. [online] Available at: http://www.techradar.com/us/news/audio/hi-fi-radio/british-hi-fi-companies-seek-sanctuary-at-audio-s-new-high-end-1166158 [Accessed: 6 Mar 2014]. Huggins, R. and Izushi, H. 2011. Competition, competitive advantage, and clusters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jansson, J. and Waxell, A. 2011. Quality and regional competitiveness. Environment and Planning-Part A, 43 (9), p. 2237. Kessler, K. 2014. SoundStage! Hi-Fi | SoundStageHiFi.com | The British Tree Huggers Get it Right For Once. [online] Available at: http://www.soundstagehifi.com/index.php/international/soundstage-uk/674-the-british-tree-huggers-get-it-right-for-once [Accessed: 6 Mar 2014]. Macintosh, R. 2010. Evolution and Revolution in the Hi-fi sector. University of Glasgow, 1 (1), pp. 1-5. May, W., Mason, C. and Pinch, S. 2001. Explaining industrial agglomeration: the case of the British high-fidelity industry. Geoforum, 32 (3), pp. 363–376. Moodysson, J. and Jonsson, O. 2007. Knowledge collaboration and proximity the spatial organization of biotech innovation projects. European urban and regional studies, 14 (2), pp. 115–131. Pratt, A. C. 1997. The cultural industries production system: a case study of employment change in Britain, 1984-91. Environment and Planning A, 29 (11), pp. 1953–1974. Sounds, R. 2014. Richer Sounds – The UK’s Hi-Fi, Home Cinema & Flat Panel TV Specialists!. [online] Available at: https://www.richersounds.com/information/aboutus_culture [Accessed: 6 Mar 2014]. Telegraph.co.uk. 2010. UK hi-fi specialist Audio Partnership piggybacks China tech revolution – Telegraph. [online] Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/china-business/7956963/UK-hi-fi-specialist-Audio-Partnership-piggybacks-China-tech-revolution.html [Accessed: 6 Mar 2014]. The Economist. 2014. Streaming toddler. [online] Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/britain/21568425-prospects-upscale-hi-fi-maker-depend-music-industry-streaming-toddler [Accessed: 28 Feb 2014]. Waxell, A. and Jansson, J. 2013. Sound Affects: Competing with Quality in the Swedish hi-fi Industry. Industry and Innovation, 20 (4), pp. 316–335. Wu, K., Tseng, M. and Chiu, A. S. 2012. Using the Analytical Network Process in Porter’s Five Forces Analysis–Case Study in Philippines. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 57 pp. 1–9. Uksel, I. 2012. Developing a Multi-Criteria Decision Making Model for PESTEL Analysis.International Journal of Business & Management, 7 (24).

Globalisation of Higher Education Essay

The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flow of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Globalization is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being education. The effect of globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an nformation- based society. Globalization has a multi- dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in this area like E- Learning, flexible learning, distance education programs and overseas training. The globalization of education is shaping young children of a country into ‘global citizens with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive information based society. Globalization also facilitates international collaboration and cross- cultural exchange. Globalization of higher education is a major concern for all societies. As the essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economic and culture. This paper will analyze the positive and negative impact of globalization on Higher education for developing countries. Effective education system is the foundation of opportunities to lead a decent life. One should ensure that all Children should have adequate access to education at all income level. The paper argues that education is a core element of society. The basic cause of global inequality is due to the difference in opportunities in education between different countries. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they are endowed with knowledge, skills, and values and with the capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic likelihoods. The accuracy of the analysis is dependent upon the accuracy of the data reported by various people of the country. The result of this study will help all the sectors of the society to understand better, the culture, values and education system of other countries and facilitates its adoption. Educators can also use this result to bring the changes in their areas if necessary. Introduction The term â€Å"Globalization† represents the international system that is shaping most societies today. Globalization is a process by which many areas of human life such as economies, societies, politics, business and cultures have been affected around the world. One of these areas being education. The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. It s characterized by an accelerated flow of trade, capital and information as well as mobility of individuals, across geographical borders. It reflect comprehensive level of interaction than that has occurred in the past, suggesting something beyond the work â€Å"international†. Globalization means more competition, not just with other companies or institutions in the same city or the same region. Globalization also means that national borders do not limit a nation’s investment, production, innovation and education. Therefore, the term â€Å"globalization† has acquired many emotive commutations. At one extreme, globalization is seen as an irresistible and benign force for delivering economic prosperity to people throughout the world. At the other, it is blamed as a source of all contemporary ills. However, while the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. Roberson (1992) further states that globalization was initially discussed from economic perspectives, but soon after it became a topic for discussions among intellectuals from cultural perspectives as well. According to Giddens â€Å"Globalization the dialectic of homogenization and heterogenization† (1991. p22). In other words, globalization, by intensifying the interconnectedness among different people, things and ideas, homogenizes the world and yet at the same time, the world becomes heterogenized as people are more aware of differences due to the increasing proximity with differences under a globalize world (Giddens, 1991 ). The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in 1960 by Marshall Mc Luhan in an influential book about her newly shared experience of mass media, was likely to be the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Cited in Epstein, 2002). After 1980, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as the emergence of industrial man (cited in Robertson, 1992). One critical issue that emerges from all of these restructuring processes is the central role of Knowledge, education and learning for the success of the Global Information Society (GIS) and global information economy. Globalization impacts all aspects of society. Higher education may and business contents seem particularly influenced by them. In the twentieth century, may developing countries have xperienced growth in the educational facilities available to them due to the entry of institution from the west. Some believe that this process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing counties to increase their skills and standard of education. Other fear that it is merely a modern version of cultural imperialism that will lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately western society. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they endowed with knowledge, skills and with capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic livelihoods. They need employment and incomes, and a healthy environment. These are the essential conditions with empower them to participate fully as citizens in their local, national and global communities. Education is a major concern for all societies. As the foundation and essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economics and culture. Steven Schwartz (http:// www. Ssn.. flinders. edu. u) believed that â€Å"Education, where possible, hould be integrated into the private sector because ‘higher education is increasingly and international enterprise’ and thus will increasingly be pressured and drawn into deregulation and privatization. † This paper analyses the effect of globalization on higher education and also discusses about the impact of globalization on higher education, various opportunities and challenges on the society. Imp act of Globalization of Higher Education. Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of Globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are oreseeing changes with in school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the role of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards and information- based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form of cultural imperialism. It brings rapid development in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge. The rise of a global society, driven by technology and communication development are shaping hildren, the future citizens of the world into ‘ global citizens’, intelligent people with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive. , information based society. The future of countries often lies with in their ability to compete in a global market where industrial based economies are giving way to knowledge based industries, realizing the importance of â€Å"knowledge skills and the intellectual capacity to meet the challenges of accelerated change and uncertainty†. Education is becoming a lifelong learning and training process, developing ransferable skills and knowledge that can be applied to competitive markets where knowledge and information is being trades as a commodity. Although globalization seems to be unavoidable to many counties and numerous initiative and efforts have been made to adapt to it with aims at taking the opportunities created from it to develop their societies and people, in recent years there are also increasing international concerns with the dangerous impacts of globalization on digenous and national developments. Various social movements have been initiated against the threats of globalization particularly in eveloping countries. The negative impacts of globalization include various types of economic, political, and cultural colonization by advanced countries on those developing and under- developed countries. In evitable, how to maximize the opportunities and benefits from globalization to support local developments and reduce the threats and negative impacts of globalization will be the major concerns of developing countries. Opportunities of globalization of higher education Knowledge is the driving forces in the rapidly changing globalize economy and society. Quantity nd quality of specialized human resources determine their competence in the global market. Emergence of knowledge results in both challenges and opportunities. It is well known that the growth of the global economy has increased opportunities for those countries with good levels of education. Globalization has a multi-dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in these areas like- E- learning, flexible learning, distance educational programme and overseas training. The introduction of technology into the classroom is changing the nature f delivering education to the students is gradually giving way to a new form of electronic literacy , more programs and education materials are made available in electronic form. Teachers are preparing lectures in the electronic form and even students are presenting assignments and giving papers in the electronic form. The blackboards have been replaced by the LCD’s. The chalk has been replaced by the pointers and the power point presentations. Books have been replaced by compact discs. Even grades and the exams are gradually becoming available through electronic means and notebooks are replaced by laptops. Now the students do not have to carry heavy bags to the classrooms. Even the students can be examined through computer managed learning system and do tutorials exercises on a computer rather than in the classroom. Even, the technology has given the opportunity to deliver the material through electronic source i. e. via power point presentation and even the notes can be distributed to the students via electronic mail. With such changes and the emergence of video conferencing and the internet, the barriers of distance are being broken down at a rapid rate, due to the key aspect of globalization. Students and adults or in other works each and every person can now learn in variety of ways and there is no longer any need to be physically present in the education institutions in order to learn. The material is becoming readily available over internet, through video conferencing and tape recordings. Teacher can deliver the lecture to the whole class with the help of video conferencing without being physically present in the class. Now, the student of can get the education from any part of the world without traveling over there. The person can stay in his /her own country and et the education of which country he/ she wishes without going over there. Students can learn any time and at any place. Anyone can maintain libraries of texts, images computer software and other forms of data, anywhere at any time. The rapid growth of television services, with their immense influence as media of mass communication, has been very relevant in the technological shift. Other larger contribution to this shift includes the transistor and space satellites. Communication and information based technology over the years is the internet. This is a massive network of computers located hroughout the world. Developments in the delivery of education is allowing for individuals to explore new areas of learning and thinking that could not be done with pen and paper. They are discovering knowledge through inquiry and experimentation rather than memorizing facts in a teacher dominated classroom setting. Another opportunity of international trade leads to allocation of resources that is consistent with comparative advantage. Globalization results in specialization which enhances productivity. Thus, the international trade, in general, is beneficial and that restrictive trade practices impede rowth. That’s why many off the emerging economies, which originally depended on a growth model of import substitution, have moved over to a policy of outward orientation. Globalization of higher eduction also gives the opportunity in movement of capital. Capital is a key factor of production. Capital flows across countries have played an important role in enhancing the production base. Without capital any type of economic activity is not possible. Capital mobility enables the total saving of the world to be distributed among countries which have the highest investment potential. Emergence of strong capital market has been one of the important features of the current process of globalization while the growth in capital and foreign exchange markets have facilitated the transfer of resources across borders, the gross turnover in foreign exchange markets has been extremely large. The internationalization of higher education can be linked to various internal and external changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labor market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers and workers with deeper nderstandings of languages, cultures and business methods from all over the world. â€Å"Modern education is almost exclusively focused on preparing children for an urban future. † Challenges of globalization of higher education No doubts, higher education has attained a key position in the knowledge society under globalize economy. However, the challenges faced are immense and far- reaching. Its impact on the clientele via, individuals, institutions, systems and societies are not only not clear but also not comprprehentible at this moment unless it is viewed in the context of various other factors that re simultaneously operating on the higher education system. Some agrees that the rapid cross national flows of people, goods , capital and information may dissolve the nation states, push institutions( university is the one) into a common mould where as others disagree. It is assumed that globalization promises dramatic and rewarding change to the higher education system, of societies, which are relatively stable in their political, social and institutional make up, while for the will performing higher education system. It is also true that globalization has given the dvanced economies a huge advantage as they had made enough preparation prior to its launching while others are caught in the trap without any preparation. Integration into world economy today’s implies not only mastery of traditional knowledge but also the capacity to acquire the new skills required by a knowledge society. It is therefore evident that an unequal sharing of the new communication and information technologies only serves to reinforce existing inequalities. While education deficits are obviously greater in developing countries, this is a major issue in developed countries as well. In many industrialized countries there is a persistent problem of illiteracy and low skills, which is and important source of social exclusion. Unequal access to education also fuels growing wage inequality and worsen the income distribution. The uneducated and unskilled in industrialized counties face sever disadvantage in an increasingly competitive global market. However, the provision of both primary and secondary schooling increased during the 90’s across the globe, but progress is inadequate and hides the differences between counties and regions. There are many evidences that the more rapid progress is possible if the political will nd the resources exists, in high and low income countries alike. The increase in poverty in the world is the most tragic phenomenon in this era of abundance. It is the cause of marginal and the exclusion of increasingly bigger groups of the world population and in particular, affects children, the young and women. As a consequence, we see the development of cultures of poverty and marginalization that lock the same people into the cycle of poverty and reinforce their exclusion. But it is still the inequality with regards to knowledge that constitutes one of the biggest challenges of our societies. The traditional raw materials and non renewable natural resources under threat of extinction no longer occupy the most important place in the process of production and development . It is knowledge in itself that has become one of the key resources of economic growth. The introduction of technology is also becoming a challenge to the society. As the implementation of technology and communication to be successful and to educate a society, both the students and teachers need to be technologically literate. Communication technology is offering new challenges for students of all abilities as they can discuss issues of concern with heir fellow students from around the world. A shift in education is becoming evident where more responsibility is being placed on the individual for his or her learning, instead of solely on the teacher. Subsequently, the teachers themselves also need to be highly technologically literate, needing the competence and confidence to prepare students for a global information society. Just because of technology and communication seems to be creating in human life between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ resulting in a bifurcated society of those who can afford such information technology and those who can’t. so too does globalization. While education institutions in western societies are embracing technology, developing countries are once again left behind, too weak and fragile to implement development programs for education, let alone introduce technology as well. There are severe limitations in delivering basic services. A lack of infrastructure and funding makes it difficult to implement any technological and communication advancements. However, despite differences in economy, political, cultures and society, second and third worlds have adopted educational ideals from western thought and are anxious to appear odern and therefore promote education as a symbol of modernity and development to their own population and the foreign countries. The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has clearly had effects on Cultures worldwide. Now the sources of wealth come from knowledge and communication instead of natural resources and physical labour, which once characterized the United States as a n industrial society. This is a global rather than a national economy. The new economy puts a premium on intellectual capital and the people who produce it. This means that the demand for igher education is expanding dramatically. Education is needed throughout a lifetime, and the marketplace for that education is international. This growth makes education appealing to the private sector. Educational institutions have reacted by becoming more market oriented. Due to this increasing free trade around the globe- to end protection in many sectors so that there is more competition and privatization, education is increasingly being drawn into this global capitalist competition. The internationalization of education has become one of the key themes of ducational policy and planning in the 1990’s and the integration of worldwide capital and labour markets; educators are being forced to respond to a new set of challenges. The demographics of higher education have changed substantially. Less than one fifth of today’s college students meet the traditional stereotype of attending school full time. For the new majority of students, higher education is not as central to their lives as it was for previous generations of students. Research shows they want a very different relationship with their college than students have historically had. They are unwilling to pay for activities and services they do not use. Higher education is being subjected to greater criticism than in the past on issues varying from low productivity and higher cost to the quality of leadership and the inadequacy of technology use. This is an invitation to a private sector that rightly or wrongly sees higher education as the next health care industry. Another challenge is of currency trade. Currency trade has become an end in itself. However, the volatility in the foreign exchange has created often times panic situations. The most recent xample of this was the East Asian crisis. Contagion of financial crises is a worrying phenomenon. When one country faces a crisis, it affects others. It is not as if financial crises are solely caused by foreign exchange traders. Another, major concern is to deliver world class education with updated curriculum and practical exposure. This is possible only by attracting talented and experienced persons in to academics. At present it is difficult to assess not only the nature and dimensions of globalization, but also what it means to the field of education. A few educational researchers have attempted to made onnections between the several dimensions of globalization and the policies of education. Globalization of Higher Education in India India is also following the global phenomenon. As part of globalization, the economic reform packages were introduced in India in the beginning of 1991. These reform packages imposed a heavy compression on the public budgets on education sector, more specifically so on higher education. This has trickled down to public expenditure on education in general, and higher education in particular. Indian government and Indian corporate sector has recognized the importance of management ducation in the ganging global scenario. Today under the reforming economic conditions, integration of the Indian economy with world economy presupposes efficiency and competitiveness in the domestic front as well as in the international arena. As the process of globalization is technology-driven, and knowledge driven, the very success of economic reform policies critically depends upon the competence of human capital. But, what is observed is the reverse. Even within the education sector, relative priority assigned to higher education has been on the decline. It is to be realized that higher education institutions lay an important role insetting the academic standard for primary and secondary education. They are also responsible for not only providing the specialized human capital in order to corner the gains from globalization, but also for training inside the country, provide policy advice, etc. Globalization is expected to have a positive influence on the volume, quality an spread of knowledge through increased interaction among the various states. Today our education system is strong enough but central and state governments should change their roles with in the education system, re- inventing them as facilitating supervisory rganizations. Teacher training, infrastructure and syllabuses need to be urgently upgraded. Industry should come forward to share experience with students and to offer more opportunities for live projects. Commercial institutions offering specialized education have come up everywhere. In view of globalization many corporate universities, both foreign and Indian, are encroaching upon our government institutions. Our Institutes like IIM’S and IIT’S have produced world class professionals. These institutes imparts quality education as per industry expectations and give due importance to institute Industry interface. Under the new scenario, Government – Private partnership is becoming important in Management Education. Now India is a transforming country. We are near to achieve status of developed nation. The demand for higher education has been growing rapidly with comparatively faster growth in enrolment in higher educational institutions than the growth in number of higher educational institutions. The growth rates are doubled among the students enrolled in post- graduate and research, while the number of institutions for post –graduate and research studies has grown at a slower rate in 1990’s than in 1980’s. India is witnessing new era in the field of Management Education. Many Corporate groups like Reliance, Nirma, Tata, Sterlite etc have promoted Management Institutes. Some reputed foreign universities are also coming to India. But government should issue some guidelines so that fees structure remains with in certain limit and those who are from economically poor background have same opportunity. Conclusion Globalization has had many obvious effects on educational technology and communication systems change the way education is delivered as well as roles played by both teachers and tudents. The development of this technology is facilitating the transition from an industrial based society to an information-based one. At the same time, there is a dark side to globalization and to the very openness of the new information systems. While the richest countries grow richer, the poor are becoming poorer. Income, information and education gaps between the rich and the poor are widening not narrowing: economic crises, trade imbalances and structural adjustments have precipitated a moral crisis in many countries, tearing the basic social and ultural fabric of many families and communities apart, resulting in increasing youth unemployment , suicide, violence, racism and drug abuse and anti social behavior form schools. In the 21st century, education systems face the dual challenge of equipping students with the new knowledge, skills and values needed to be competitive in a global market while at the same time producing graduates who are responsible adults, good citizens both of their country and of the world. Thus, globalization challenges us to rethink not only how much education is needed but also its ultimate purposes.